Coordination and paired clauses
Coordination refers to how two or more words, phrases, or clauses can be joined together, often with a conjunction, such as “and” or “but”. Different conjunctions are used to express different relationships between the elements, e.g. cause-and-effect or a sequence of events.
Contents
- Coordination without a conjunction
- Conjunctive (“and”)
- Disjunctive (“or”)
- Contrast and concession (“but”)
- Cause and effect (“because”, “thus”)
- Conditionals and conjecture (“if”, “maybe”)
- Time clauses
- References and further reading
Coordination without a conjunction
In English, the conjunction “and” can join up clauses that do not necessarily depend on each other grammatically, but which point back to the subject of the sentence:
She is a doctor, and [she] has worked for two years in Hong Kong.
However, a conjunction would not be necessary here in Teochew, as the same meaning can be conveyed by simple juxtaposition:
i³³ si¹¹ ui³³seŋ³³ / tsõĩ¹¹ no¹¹ni⁵⁵ to¹¹ hiaŋ³³kaŋ³³ tso⁵³kaŋ³³
I1 si6(7) ui1sêng1, zoin5(7) no6(7)-ni5 do6(7) Hiang1gang2 zo3(2)gang1.
伊 是 醫生，前 二年 在 香港 做工。
She is doctor, previous two-years in Hong-Kong work.
Conjunctive (“and”)
gah4 • 甲/佮 • “and”, “with”
Gah4 is also written with the following characters: 甲、合、及、與. The first of these (甲) is probably phonetic borrowing, while the others are semantic borrowings. The character 佮 is used for the cognate word in Taiwanese Minnan.
Nouns and noun phrases are joined with ka’4:
ua⁵³ siaŋ¹¹ hi³⁵hũã³³ kai¹¹ tsʰẽ³³kũãĩ⁵³ si¹¹ nek²õĩ⁵³ kaʔ² ni¹¹kue⁵³
Ua2 siang6(7) hi2(6)huan1 gai5(7) cên1guain2 si6(7) nêg8(4)oin2 gah4(8) ni6(7)guê2.
我 上 喜歡 個 青果 是 肉眼 甲 奶果。
I most like REL fruit is longan and papaya.
My favorite fruits are longan and papaya.
***
i³³ zik²zik⁵ tũã³³tũã³³ tʰoi⁵³ tiaŋ¹¹si³⁵ kaʔ⁵ sɯŋ³⁵ tiaŋ¹¹nau⁵³ tĩã¹¹
I1 rig8(4)rig8 duan1duan1 toi2-diang6(7)si6 gah4(8) seng2(6)-diang6(7)nao2 dian7.
伊 日日 單單 睇 電視 甲 耍 電腦 爾。
He daily only watch-TV and play-computer only.
The only thing he does all day is to watch TV and play computer games.
Gah4 also means “with”, “for” (see “Passives and ‘give’ constructions”), but in those cases is a preposition/coverb, not a conjunction:
ua⁵³ e¹¹ loi³⁵pai¹¹ kaʔ⁵ pʰeŋ¹¹iou⁵³ kʰɯ⁵³ hiaŋ³³kaŋ⁵³
Ua2 ê6(7)-loi2(6)bai3 gah4(8) pêng5(7)iou2 ke3(2) Hiang1gang2.
我 下禮拜 甲 朋友 去 香港。
I next-week with friend go Hong-Kong.
I’m going to Hong Kong next week with a friend.
***
i³³ kaʔ⁵ uaŋ⁵³ teŋ⁵⁵ ki³³pʰie²¹³ lou¹¹
I1 gah4(8) uang2 dêng2(6) gi1piê3 lou7.
伊 甲 阮 訂 機票 路。
He for we-excl. book plane-ticket PERF.
He has already booked the plane tickets for us.
Disjunctive (“or”)
a1si6 • 阿是 • “or”
lɯ⁵³ ai⁵³ lim³³ ko³³pi⁵⁵ a³³si¹¹ te⁵⁵
Le2 ai3(2) lim1 go1bi5 a1si6(7) dê5?
汝 愛 啉 咖啡 阿是 茶？
You want drink coffee or tea?
Do you want to drink coffee or tea?
hog4 • 或 • “or”
Contrast and concession (“but”)
Linking together two thoughts that contrast with each other, e.g. that oppose each other or which are unexpected and surprising.
sui1riêng5/dang6(7)si6 • 雖然/但是 • “although”/”but”
This can be used as a pair to form paired clauses:
sui1riêng5 CLAUSE1, dang6(7)si6 CLAUSE2
i³³ sui³³zieŋ⁵⁵ si¹¹ gɯŋ³⁵taŋ³³ naŋ⁵⁵ / taŋ¹¹si¹¹ ia¹¹ oi¹¹hiau³⁵ tã⁵³ tie¹¹tsiu³³ ue¹¹
I1 sui1riêng5(7) si6(7) Geng2(6)dang1-nang5, dang6(7)si6(7) ia7 oi6(7)hiao2(6) dan3(2) Diê5(7)ziu1-uê7.
伊 雖然 是 廣東儂，但是 也 會曉 呾 潮州話。
He although is Canton-person, but also able speak Teochew.
Although he’s Cantonese, he is also able to speak Teochew.
Can also be used independently:
sui1riêng5 cLAUSE1, CLAUSE2
CLAUSE1, dang6(7)si6 CLAUSE2
bug4(8)guê7 • 不過 • “but”, “nonetheless”
Used similarly to dang6(7)si6 above.
i³³ ai⁵³ tɯŋ³⁵kʰɯ⁵³ hiaŋ³³kaŋ⁵³ / puk⁵kue¹¹ to¹¹ hɯ⁵³ko²¹³ tsʰue¹¹ m¹¹tieʔ² kʰaŋ³³kʰue²¹³
I1 ai3(2) deng2(6)ke3(2) Hiang1gang2, bug4(8)guê7 do6(7) he2go3 cuê7 m7diêh8(4) kang1kuê3.
伊 愛 轉去 香港，不過 在 許塊 揣 唔着 工課。
He want return Hong-Kong, but at there find NEG work.
He wants to return to Hong Kong, but can’t find a job there.
si6(7)dan3 • 是呾 • “but”
Similar to dang6(7)si6
bo⁵⁵ / i³³ bo¹¹ hĩã³³ bo¹¹ ti³⁵ / u¹¹ kai¹¹ a³³ mue²⁵ / si¹¹ tã⁵² bo¹¹ to¹¹ sũã³³ tʰau⁵⁵ ko²¹³
bho5, i1 bho5(7)hian1 bho5(7)di6, u6(7)gai5(7) a1muê6, si6(7)dan3(2) bho5(7)do6(7) Suan1tao5-go3.
無，伊 無兄無弟，有個 阿妹，是呾 無在 汕頭 塊。
NEG, he NEG-older-brother NEG-younger-brother, have-CL younger-sister, but NEG-at Swatow.
No, he doesn’t have any brothers; he has a younger sister but she does not live in Swatow.
(Example 3:17 from Qiu 2002)
ding1do3 • 顛倒 • “on the contrary”
i³³ bo¹¹ sie³³hu³⁵ / tiŋ³³to⁵³ kʰoiʔ² naŋ⁵³ zu³⁵ tsoi¹¹ mua¹¹hueŋ⁵⁵
I1 bho5(7) siê1hu6, ding1do3(2) koih8(4) nang2 ru2(6) zoi7 mua5(7)huêng5.
伊 無 相輔， 顛倒 乞 俺 愈 濟 麻煩。
He NEG help, on-the-contrary give we yet more trouble.
He was of no help, but on the contrary gave us yet more trouble.
li6 • 哩 • “on one hand… on the other…”
To contrast two alternative scenarios.
a³³io³⁵ a³³ia⁵⁵ oi³⁵ / kai¹¹ tsui³⁵kɯŋ³³ li³⁵ tsio⁵³ tua¹¹ / kai¹¹ aŋ⁵⁵ li³⁵ tsio⁵³ soi²¹³ / kʰɯŋ⁵³ tsai¹¹tek² lou⁵⁵ / bo¹¹piaŋ²¹³ miʔ²
A1-io2(6) A1-ia5 oi6, gai5(7) zui2(6)geng1 li6 zio2 dua7, gai5(7) ang5 li6 zio2 soi3, keng3(2) zai7dêg8(4) lou5? Bho5(7)biang3 mih4!
A-io 阿爺 oi， 個 水缸 哩 ～ 大， 個 甕 哩 ～ 細， 囥 怎得 了？ 無變 乜！
Aiyoh Old-man SFP, CL water-jar on-one-hand thus big, CL pot on-one-hand thus small, insert how done? NEG-possible any!
O, Old Master, the water jar is so big, but the earthern pot is so small, it can’t be possible to put one in the other.
(Knowing one but not the other 「只知其一，不知其二」 陳四文)
Cause and effect (“because”, “thus”)
ing1ui5/so2(6)i2 • 因為/所以 • “because”/“therefore”
This is another set of paired conjunctions.
ing1ui5 CAUSE, so2(6)i2 EFFECT
i³³ ing³³ui¹¹ teŋ³⁵pai⁵³ pak⁵ khoiʔ² kau⁵³ ka³⁵ / so³⁵i³⁵ kiŋ³³zik⁵ oi¹¹ kĩã³³ kau⁵³
I1 ing1ui5(7) dêng2(6)bai2 bag4(8) koih8(4) gao2 ga6, so2(6)i2(6) ging1rig8(4) oi6(7) gian1 gao2.
伊 因為 頂擺 識 乞 狗 咬，所以 經日 會 驚 狗。
He because past PERF PASS dog bite, therefore today can fear dog.
As he had been bitten by a dog in the past, he’s afraid of dogs now.
They can also be used separately.
CAUSE, so2(6)i2 EFFECT
ua⁵³ kĩã³⁵zik⁵ tsʰĩã³⁵ke²¹³ / so³⁵i³⁵ bo¹¹ kʰɯ⁵³ tso⁵³kaŋ³³
Ua2 gian2(6)rig8 cian2(6)gê3, so2(6)i2(6) bho5(7) ke3(2) zo3(2)gang1.
我 ～日 請假， 所以 無 去 做工。
I today on-leave, therefore NEG go work.
I’ve taken the day off, that’s why I’m not at work.
ing1ui5 CAUSE, EFFECT
ua⁵³ iŋ³³ui¹¹ tsʰĩã³⁵ke²¹³ / kiŋ³³zik⁵ to¹¹ lai³⁵
Ua2 ing1ui5(7) cian2(6)gê3, ging1rig8 do6(7) lai6.
我 因為 請假，經日 在 內。
I because on-leave, today at inside.
Because I’m on leave, I’m at home today.
EFFECT, ing1ui5 CAUSE
ua⁵³ u¹¹ si¹¹kaŋ³³ kʰiau³³kʰa³³ / si¹¹ iŋ³³ui¹¹ ua⁵³ kiŋ³³zik⁵ bo¹¹ tso⁵³kaŋ³³
Ua2 u6(7) si5(7)gang1 kiao1ka1, si6(7) ing1ui5(7) ua2 ging1rig8 bho5(7) zo3(2)gang1.
我 有 時間 曲跤， 是 因為 我 經日 無 做工。
I have time leg-up, is because I today NEG work.
I can put my feet up, because I’m not working today.
ziu6 • 就 • “therefore”, “then”
CAUSE, ziu6 EFFECT
ua⁵³ tou⁵³kʰuŋ²¹³ / tsiu¹¹ kʰɯ⁵³ tsʰue¹¹ tsiaʔ⁵
Ua2 dou3(2)kung3, ziu6(7) ke3(2) cuê7 ziah8.
我 肚困， 就 去 揣 食。
I hungry, then go find eat.
I’ll go find something to eat when I’m hungry.
ziu6 can also mean “thereafter”, indicating a sequence of events that do not necessarily have a cause-and-effect relationship (see below).
The preposition ui5(7)liao2 為了 “so that” can also express intention:
ui¹¹liau³⁵ kĩã³⁵suŋ³³ kai¹¹ bue¹¹lai⁵⁵ / i³³ tseŋ³⁵liau³⁵ tsi³⁵tsang¹¹ tsʰiu¹¹
Ui5(7)liao2(6) gian2(6)sung1 gai5(7) bhuê7lai5, i1 zêng2(6)-liao2(6) zi2(6)-zang5(7) ciu7.
為了 囝孫 個 未來， 伊 種了 只 欉 樹。
For children-grandchildren future, he plant-PERF this CL tree.
For his children’s sake, he planted this tree.
zian3 • 正 • “only then”, “thereafter” (adverb)
The Hokkien cognate is written 才, borrowing the character for an equivalent word in Mandarin. This is not strictly speaking a conjunction or preposition but is an adverb.
liao2 • 了 • “so”, “and then”
Similar to English “So, …” or “After that, ….” In the following example, the first liao2 is like English “and then”, whereas the second liao2 is a perfective aspect marker modifying the verb huag4(8)cug4 (see “Aspect”).
liau⁵³ / i³³ huak⁵tsʰuk² liau¹¹ tsik²kai¹¹ po⁵³kau²¹³
Liao2, i1 huag4(8)cug4 liao2(6) zig8(4)gai5(7) bo3(2)gao3
了，伊 發出 了 一個 佈告
Then, he publish-PERF one-CL report
And then, [the auditors] issued a report
ru2 • 愈 • “the more that X, the more Y”
When increasing or intensifying something causes something else to increase too. The word ru2 愈 is also used in comparisons, typically in the word ru2(6)gêng2 愈更 (see “Comparisons, Quantities, and Degrees”).
i³³ tʰau⁵³ zu³⁵ li¹¹hai¹¹ / hɯ³⁵kai¹¹ naŋ⁵⁵ kai¹¹ mi³⁵hĩũ⁵⁵ mau³³ zu³⁵ kiŋ³³ / bo¹¹ tui³⁵ zu³⁵ ke³⁵
i1 tao3(2) ru2(6) li7hai7, he2(6)gai5(7)-nang5-gai5(7) mi2(6)hiun5 mao1 ru2(6)-ging1, bho5(7) dui2(6) ru2(6)-gê6
伊 透 愈 厲害， 許個儂個 棉裘 包 愈 緊， 帽 戴 愈 底
he blow more strongly, that-person-GEN coat wrap more tightly, hat wear more low
the stronger it [the North Wind] blew, the tighter the man wrapped his coat around himself, and the lower he wore his cap
Conditionals and conjecture (“if”, “maybe”)
na7si6 • 哪是 – “if”
Also written as 若是, using the character 若, which means “if” in Mandarin and literary Chinese, for its semantic value. Also pronounced a1si6 阿是.
It is frequently paired with ziu6 就 to mean “if …, then …”:
na7si6 CLAUSE1, tsiu6 CLAUSE2
lɯ⁵³ na¹¹si¹¹ bo¹¹ tsʰiu⁵³kʰi⁵³ / i³⁵au³⁵ tsiu¹¹ oi¹¹ hou¹¹hue²¹³
Le2 na7si6(7) bho5(7) ciu3(2)ki2, i2(6)ao6 ziu6(7) oi6(7) hou6(7)huê3.
汝 哪是 無 漱齒， 以後 就 會 後悔。
You if NEG brush-teeth, after then will regret.
If you don’t brush your teeth, you’ll regret it.
Na7si6 can also be used on its own:
na7si6 CLAUSE1, CLAUSE2
na¹¹si¹¹ bo¹¹ a³³ma⁵⁵ kai¹¹ tsĩ³³tʰi⁵⁵ / ua⁵³ boi¹¹tek⁵ u¹¹ kiŋ³³zik⁵ kai¹¹ seŋ¹¹tsiu³⁵
Na7si6(7) bho5(7) a1ma5 gai5(7) zin1ti5, ua2 bhoi6(7)dêg8 u6(7) ging1rig8-gai5(7) sêng6(7)ziu6.
哪是 無 阿媽 個 支持，我 無得 有 經日 個 成就。
If NEG mother-GEN support, I NEG-able have today-GEN success.
Without my mother’s support, I wouldn’t have the success I have today.
Often compounded in the set phrase na7si6(7)ziê3(2)sên1 哪是照生 “if so”:
na¹¹si¹¹ tsie⁵³sẽ³³ / ua⁵³ tsiu¹¹ mai⁵⁵ bue⁵³
Na7si6(7)ziê3(2)sên1, ua2 ziu6(7) mai3(5)-bhuê2!
哪是照生， 我 就 莫 買！
If-so, I thus NEG buy!
If that’s the case, I’m not buying!
de5(7)hui1 • 除非 • “unless”
Similar to na7si6, but with the converse meaning.
de5(7)hui1 CLAUSE1, CLAUSE2
tɯ¹¹hui³³ i³³ kʰoiʔ² tsĩ³³ hãĩ⁵⁵ ua¹¹ / ua⁵³ mai⁵³ sie³³hu³⁵ i³³
De5(7)hui1 i1 koih4(8) zin1 hain5 ua7, ua2 mai3(2) siê1hu6 i7.
除非 伊 乞 錢 還 我， 我 莫 相輔 伊。
Unless he give money return I, I NEG help he.
Unless he returns me the money, I won’t help him.
zêg8/ziu6 • 一/就 • “when / then”
This construction has the meaning “the moment X occurs, then Y”. This event or occurrence X that triggers Y can be in the past or future, or recurring.
lau³⁵sɯ³³ tsek² kĩã⁵⁵ zip⁵lai¹¹ / hak²seŋ³³ tsiu¹¹ kũẽ³³tsʰui²¹³
Lao2(6)se1 zêg8(4) gian5 rib4(8)lai7, hag8(4)sêng1 ziu6(7) guên1cui3.
老師 一 行 入來， 學生 就 關嘴。
Teacher one walk inwards, student then shut-mouth.
The moment that the teacher came in, the students stopped talking.
***
ŋiau³³tsʰɯ⁵³ tsek² tsau³⁵ tsʰuk²lai¹¹ / naŋ⁵³ tsiu¹¹ ai⁵³ mẽ³⁵mẽ⁵³ kʰɯ⁵³ liaʔ⁵ i³³
Ngiao1ce2 zêg8(4) zao2(6) cug8(4)lai7, nang2 ziu6(7) ai3(2) mên2(6)mên2 ke3(2) liah8 i1!
貓鼠 一 走 出來， 俺 就 愛 猛猛 去 掠 伊！
Rat one run outward, we-incl. then ought quickly go catch it!
The moment that the rat runs out, we should quickly grab it!
an3(2)nê1 • 按呢 • “in that case”
lɯ⁵³ ai⁵³ tsiaʔ² ou¹¹ni⁵⁵ / an⁵³ne³³ tieʔ² ka³³ki¹¹ oʔ² tso⁵³ni¹¹ tso²¹³
Le2 ai3(2) ziah8(4) ou7ni5, an3(2)nê1 diêh8(4) ga1gi7 oh8(4) zo3(2)ni5(7) zo3.
汝 愛 食 芋泥， 按呢 着 家己 學 做呢 做。
You want eat yam-paste, in-that-case should self learn how make.
You want to eat yam paste? Then learn how to make it yourself.
an3(2)nê1 can also function as an adverb, meaning “such”, “to such an extent”.
lɯ⁵³ tso⁵³ni¹¹ an⁵³ne³³ hek⁵
Le2 zo3(2)ni5(7) an3(2)nê1 hêg8?
汝 做呢 按呢 乏？
You why so tired?
Why are you so tired?
m6(7)li1 唔哩 is another conjunction that also means “in that case”.
Time clauses
See also “Time-related adverbs” under “Aspect and Time”.
tao5 X tao5 Y • 頭 X 頭 Y • “while X, at the same time Y”
Two actions performed at the same time. tao5 comes before the verb phrases. This is similar to the construction yībiān… yībiān… 一邊 in Mandarin.
[i³³] tʰau¹¹ tsiaʔ⁵ tʰau¹¹ ka³³ ki¹¹ tã⁵² kʰik² ka³³ ki¹¹ tʰĩã³³
[i1] tao5(7) ziah8 tao5(7) dan3(2) kig8(4) ga1gi7 tian1 […]
［伊］ 頭 食 頭 家己 呾 乞 家己 聽 ［⋯⋯ ］
[She] simultaneously eat simultaneously speak to self hear
She ate while saying to herself…
References and further reading
- Lǐ Yǒngmíng 李永明 (1959), 《潮州方言》, Chapter 5 part 22
- Lim Hiong Seng 林雄成 (1886), Handbook of the Swatow vernacular
- Koons, Alvin & Koons, Barbara (2016) [1967], Spoken Swatow , Volume 2, Chapter 23